Some background on Ancient Rhetoric/Rhetors from Web Newbold's syllabus:

GREEK DEFINITIONS OF RHETORIC

Plato coined term "rhetoric"

·        "Bringing souls to knowledge" in dialogue between mentor and learner; object is truth, not persuasion: persuasion aims toward belief, which is uncertain; knowledge aims at absolute, eternal truth, the only worthy object of intelligence

·        Rhetoric per se is suspect and to be avoided, esp. the kind taught by Gorgias et al; but oratory/public speaking can be useful when handled by philosophers for the good of the masses (in The Republic)

For Plato, there is really one consistently desirable form of discourse--dialectic philosophy

Isocrates

·        His "rhetoric" is discourse for the attainment and persuasion of practical wisdom (phronesis); he fuses the aims of philosophy (discovery of true knowledge) with public speaking (the public good) in one language-based system (founded on concept of logos)

·        Education for public participation is context for his program, education based on broad learning and combining art, talent, and practice. The Liberal Arts are necessary for orators to speak well--for the public good--on all subjects.

Aristotle

Comprehensive systematizer of knowledge, including the nature and function of rhetorical art

Aristotle cut through a lot of the controversy about truth and persuasion to describe the real world as he saw it…and rhetoric was of paramount importance in the real world.

He poses several major questions and answers them in first part of On Rhetoric:

·        How is R. related to philosophy? "R is the "counterpart" (antistrophe) of dialectic." Rhetoric is universal and useful; Rhetoric is an art (techne)

·        What is rhetoric itself? "R. may be defined as the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion" --a technique of the mind of the rhetor, not necessarily the mechanics of persuasion in an audience; Also, "Rhetoric is the art of the probable in cases where choices must be made"

·        What is rhetorical study or education? It is concerned with the modes of persuasion.

·        How is persuasion achieved?  Persuasion is effected by proofs, some of which belong to the art (artistic proofs) and some which are outside the art (inartistic--evidence, torture)

·        What kinds of modes of persuasion exist?

·        Ethical--focused in speaker's (or speech's) character or nature

·        Pathetical--focused in audience's frame of mind

·        Logical--focused in the rationality of the speech itself

[Aristotle's theory fully integrates audience, speaker and speech in a dynamic and consistent relationship]

·        What is the "duty" of rhetoric?  To help people deal with difficult deliberations "without systems to guide us"--e.g. legal, political issues, and human issues

·        What is the proper subject of rhetoric? All things which present alternative possibilities.

·        What are the main divisions or branches of rhetoric?

·        Forensic (legal)

·        Deliberative (political)

·        Epideictic (ceremonial)

·        These divisions depend on classes of listeners: the court judge and/or jury; the legislative assembly; the general observer

·        Each division has a time reference:

·        Forensic--past events

·        Deliberative--future events

·        Epideictic--present conditions

·        Each division has its own general goals

·        Forensic--determination of justice or injustice

·        Deliberative--determination of expediency in future courses of action

·        Epideictic--determination of praise or blame, honor or dishonor in persons or institutions

Aristotle's main focus of technique is on the means of persuasion--ethical, logical, and pathetical

·        Speaker's character projection is main element of ethos

·        Enthymemes and examples are main elements of logical proof

·        Audience's frame of mind is main element of pathetical proof

Aristotle's rhetoric has strong moral element--enthymemes are created from maxims or unspoken assumptions about right and wrong; most logical argumentation proceeds from this point.

Aristotle. is also concerned with style and delivery, discussed in Third book

Summary of Greek Rhetorical Theorists

Plato, Aristotle, Isocrates, represent three perspectives on rhetoric important to this day:

Plato deals with transcendent truth as the heart of discourse--attempts to answer questions about WHY?

Aristotle looks at all human knowledge and society, categorizes, analyzes the functioning of discourse--attempts the question HOW?

Isocrates places discourse in a social, community context to examine and learn about relationship of thought and action--attempts the question WHAT SHALL WE DO?